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Go v e r n a n c e f o r i n c l u s i o n : P a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d d i a l o g u e Golla et al. (2011) suggest that programmes should ‘choose their slice’ of the complex pie that constitutes economic empowerment while framing it in the broader context. A recent study found evidence that combined interventions that are holistic and provide economic skills and services, as well as life skills and other training, deliver the best results. As single interventions, micro-credit schemes were found to have no impact on female bargaining power, but when implemented with business development approaches were seen to contribute to increasing women’s confidence and knowledge (Taylor and Pereznieto, 2014). Indeed, programmes that approach empowerment in a comprehensive way have recorded impressive results. The USAIDfunded SHOUHARDO programme3, implemented by CARE in Bangladesh, covers health, sanitation, food production, village savings and loans, institutional strengthening and climate change adaptation with various ‘empowerment’ elements, including promotion of female entrepreneurship and self-help groups where taboo subjects can be discussed. Results indicate that involvement in the programme has increased women’s freedom and raised their decision-making power over the use of loans and the buying and selling of household assets (Svarer, 2014; CARE, 2012). The different components of the programme are credited with bringing about this transformation. Further considerations There is also a need to consider natural resources, such as land, as well as other property and assets. Land and other property (such as cattle, machinery, etc) can be used for farming and production, but are also the basis for wider political empowerment. Having access to secure land and property tenure can provide a home and enable women to engage in political struggles over resources; land is an asset to bring to marriage and can be used as collateral for loans. As such, land and property are the foundation of economic empowerment, giving women the confidence to take risks and to negotiate rights to resources, but also providing them with peace of mind (See ‘Women’s land and property rights: A necessary foundation for economic empowerment’, page 94). Ultimately, inequalities persist between women and men because of underlying norms and institutions that determine how resources are controlled. No single programme can address all the factors that contribute to women’s economic empowerment, and it is evident that it can only be meaningfully and sustainably achieved if its various components are taken into consideration. To free women from control and coercion, and to empower them – expanding their freedom and choices – involves changing the social structures that shape their lives, that is, ultimately, a political process involving negotiation. Endnotes i See www.girleffect.org/girl-hub. ii The term ‘the third billion’ is used to define the estimated one billion women in both developing and industrialised nations whose economic lives have been previously inhibited or suppressed, and who, over the next decade, could begin taking their places in the global economy as consumers, producers, employees and entrepreneurs. 1 See www.walmartempowerswomen.org. 2 See www.coca-cola.co.uk/community/5-by-20.html. 3 See www.care.org/work/health/children/shouhardo. References Baden, S., 2014. ‘Introduction’. Mapping the Debate on Women’s Economic Empowerment, Oxford, 19 September 2014. Oxford: Mokoro. CARE, 2012. Reaching New Heights: The Case for Measuring Women’s Empowerment pdf CARE. Available at: www.care.org/sites/default/files/documents/CARE_IWD_2012.pdf Accessed 15 January 2015. Coca-Cola, 2013. Empowering Millions, One Woman at a Time pdf Coca-Cola. Available at: http://assets.cocacolacompany. com/ff/21/7f07986848e98fde21f59597d55f/5by20- infographic-pdf Accessed 18 December 2014. Daley, E., 2014. ‘Women’s land and property rights: a necessary foundation for economic empowerment’. Mapping the Debate on Women’s Economic Empowerment, Oxford, 19 September 2014. Oxford: Mokoro. Dolan, C., 2014. ‘Corporate engagement in women’s economic empowerment’. Mapping the Debate on Women’s Economic Empowerment, Oxford, 19 September 2014. Oxford: Mokoro. Duflo, E., 2012. ‘Women empowerment and economic development’. Journal of Economic Literature, 50 (4), pp. 1051–1079. Goetz, A. M. and Sen Gupta, R.,1996. ‘Who takes the credit? Gender, power, and control over loan use in rural credit programs in Bangladesh’. World Development, 24 (1), pp. 45–63. Golla, A., Malhotra, A., Nanda, P. and Mehra, R., 2011. Understanding and Measuring Women’s Economic Empowerment pdf ICRW (International Centre for Research on Women). Available at: www.icrw.org/files/publications/Understandingmeasuring womens-economic-empowerment.pdf Accessed 15 January 2015. Kabeer, N., 2005. Is Microfinance a ‘Magic Bullet’ for Women’s Empowerment? Analysis of Findings from South Asia pdf London School of Economics. Available at: www.lse.ac.uk/genderInstitute/about/resourcesNailaKabeer/kabee rNoMagicBullets.pdf Accessed 15 January 2015. Kabeer, N., 2012. Women’s Economic Empowerment and Inclusive Growth: Labour Markets and Enterprise Development pdf International Development Research Centre. Available at: www.idrc.ca/EN/Documents/NK-WEE-Concept-Paper.pdf Accessed 15 January 2015. Lagarde, C., 2014. ‘Keynote speech’. Women’s Power as the Source of Growth, Tokyo, 5 September 2014. Tokyo: World Assembly for Women. Malhotra, A. and Schuler, S. R., 2005. ‘Women’s empowerment as a variable in international development’. In: D. Narayan, ed. 2005. Measuring Empowerment: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives. Washington: World Bank, pp. 71–88. Narayan, D., 2005. ‘Conceptual framework and methodological challenges’. In: D. Narayan, ed. 2005. Measuring Empowerment: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives. Washington: World Bank, pp. 3–39. OECD DAC (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Development Assistance Committee), 2012. Women’s Economic Empowerment: The OECD DAC Network on Gender Equality pdf OECD. Available at: www.oecd.org/dac/povertyreduction/50157530.pdf Accessed 15 January 2015. Oppenheim Mason, K., 2005. ‘Measuring women’s empowerment: Learning from cross-national research’. In: D. Commonwealth Governance Handbook 2014/15 92


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