The role of the state in empowering poor and excluded groups and individuals Lack of power is a universal and basic characteristic of poverty. Poverty is not solely a lack of income, but rather is characterized by a vicious cycle of powerlessness, stigmatization, discrimination, exclusion and material deprivation, which all mutually reinforce each other. Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona (2013) Empowerment is something of a development ‘fuzzword’, a broad concept that allows multiple interpretations and definitions, often reflecting the theoretical or ideological predisposition of their exponents. We use a definition based on Eyben (2011): Empowerment happens when individuals and organised groups are able to imagine their world differently and to realise that vision by changing the relations of power that have kept them in poverty, restricted their voice and deprived them of their autonomy. This places the issue of empowerment squarely in the minds and hearts of poor and excluded individuals, seeking a proper balance between enhancing their own sense of agency and making the structural changes to institutions and policies that are needed for their emancipation. The definition also stresses the centrality of ‘power’ to empowerment – a point that may seem obvious, but the word often slips out of definitions and leads to a more technical, less people- and power-centred discussion. Power is best seen as a form of invisible force field linking individuals and actors, in a state of constant flux and renegotiation. Empowerment of excluded groups and individuals involves the redistribution of that power, so that it accumulates in the hands of poor women and men. That process of renegotiation and accumulation is effectively captured by the ‘three powers’ model first proposed by Jo Rowlands (1997). According to this reading, power for excluded groups and individuals can be disaggregated into three basic forms: Power within (a sense of rights, dignity and voice, along with basic capabilities). This individual level of empowerment is an essential precondition for collective action. For governments, reshaping the social norms that perpetuate the exclusion of groups and individuals is a crucial aspect of empowerment. Examples of state action: • Civil registration of excluded groups and individuals, including lower castes, indigenous, the elderly and disabled, and migrants – India’s Aadhaar project • Public education on discriminatory norms and values – e.g. Ethiopia’s initiatives on disabled people’s rights • Equitable access to assets and opportunities – e.g. social protection schemes such as Brazil’s Bolsa Familia, or South Africa’s Old Age Grants; abolishing user fees (Sierra Leone) or involving excluded groups (ethnic minorities in Vietnam, pastoralists in Eritrea) • Guarantee sexual and reproductive health rights – e.g. Pakistan’s Lady Health Workers (see box) Power with (ability to organise, express views). Poor people come together to express their views and demand their rights. Governments need to facilitate (and not oppose or seek to co-opt) such organisation. Examples of state action: • Providing capacity-building support to interest- and identitybased organisations (e.g. rural producer organisations and workers in the informal economy – see box) • Providing an enabling environment for excluded groups to organise and represent their interests Power to (ability to influence decision makers, whether the state, economic power holders or other). Governments need to create and maintain channels for such influence, and facilitate access to them by excluded groups and individuals. Examples of state action: • Affirmative action for the political representation of disadvantaged groups (e.g. India’s reservation system for women representatives in local government) • Initiatives and reforms that promote transparency and accountability (e.g Brazil’s use of participatory budgeting) Curbing bad power and supporting legal empowerment Governments need to curb the ‘bad power’ of non-state actors, in the shape of excessive concentration of power and influence, and its use against the interests of excluded groups and individuals. This is as true in the household, for Commonwealth Governance Handbook 2013/14 123 Duncan Green and Sophie King
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